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Contents<\/p>\n<\/div>

Phases of the Indus Valley Civilization<\/a><\/li>
Area of the Indus Valley Civilization<\/a><\/li>
Indus Valley Sites – North to South<\/a><\/li>
Indus Valley Sites in India<\/a>
- Kalibangan<\/a><\/li>
- Lothal<\/a><\/li>
- Dholavira<\/a><\/li>
- Banawali<\/a><\/li>
- Rakhigarhi<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>
- Indus Valley Sites in Pakistan<\/a>
  - Harappa<\/a><\/li>
  - Mohenjodaro<\/a><\/li>
  - Chanhudaro<\/a><\/li>
  - Koti-Diji<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>
  - Indus Valley Sites in Afghanistan<\/a>
    - Shortugai<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>
    - Town Planning<\/a><\/li>
    - Society<\/a><\/li>
    - Economy of Indus Valley Civilization<\/a>
      - Agriculture<\/a><\/li>
      - Mining<\/a><\/li>
      - Imports & Exports<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>
      - Religion of Indus Valley Civilization<\/a><\/li>
      - Causes of the Decline<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n
        <\/p>\n
        >>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        \n
        The Indus Valley Civilization forms a part of the proto-history of India.<\/li>\n
        It belongs to the Bronze Age<\/a>. <\/b><\/li>\n
        Indus Valley Civilization is older than Chalcolithic civilizations.<\/li>\n
        In many ways it was far more developed than settlements in the Chalcolithic Age<\/a> or Copper Age.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        $\"Indus$
        Indus Valley Sculpture<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        <\/span>Phases of the Indus Valley Civilization<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n
        \n
        The Harappan civilization can be classified into 3 phases\n
        \n
        Pre-Harappan<\/b> phase<\/b> – 3200 to 2600<\/li>\n
        Mature<\/b> Harappan<\/b> phase<\/b> – 2600 to 1900<\/li>\n
        Late<\/b> Harappan<\/b> or declining<\/strong> phase<\/b> – 1900 to 1300 BC<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
        Pre-Harappan civilization has been found at Mehrgarh<\/a>\u00a0near Bolan Pass Balochistan, Pakistan.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/p>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        <\/span>Area of the Indus Valley Civilization<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n\n
        1,400 settlements of this civilization have been discovered so far.<\/li>\n
        Those are distributed over a very wide geographical area, almost\n
        \n
        East to west – 1,600 km<\/li>\n
        North to south – 1,400 km<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
        Harappan civilization extent starts from\n
        \n
        West – Sutkagendor (Baluchistan)<\/li>\n
        East – Alamgirpur (Meerut, Uttar Pradesh)<\/li>\n
        North – Manda (Akhnoor, J&K)<\/li>\n
        South – Daimabad (Ahmadnagar, Maharashtra)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
        The total geographical stretch of Harappan civilization is about 1,250,000 sq. km<\/li>\n
        It was more than 20 times the area<\/b> of Egyptian<\/a> and more than 12 times of the combined area of Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations<\/a>.<\/li>\n
        Mostly, the Harappan settlements were located on river banks.<\/li>\n
        Only 40 settlements were located on the Indus and its tributaries<\/a>.<\/li>\n
        1,100 (80%) settlements were located on the vast plain between the Indus and the Ganga<\/a>, comprising mainly the Saraswati river<\/b> system (no more exist).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        $\"harappan$
        Indus Valley Seals<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        <\/span>Indus Valley Sites – North to South<\/span><\/span><\/h2>\n
        \n
        \n\n\n\n\n
        \n
        India<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
        \n
        Pakistan<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
        \n
        Afghanistan<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        \n
        J&K<\/span><\/div>\n
        \n
        Manda<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        Punjab<\/span><\/div>\n
        \n
        Ropar<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        Haryana<\/span><\/div>\n
        \n
        Balu<\/span><\/li>\n
        Banawali<\/span><\/li>\n
        Rakhigarhi<\/span><\/li>\n
        Farmana<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        UP<\/span><\/div>\n
        \n
        Alamgirpur<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        Rajasthan<\/span><\/div>\n
        \n
        Kalibangan<\/span><\/li>\n
        Baror<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        Gujarat<\/span><\/div>\n
        \n
        Desalpur<\/span><\/li>\n
        Surkotada<\/span><\/li>\n
        Dholavira <\/span><\/li>\n
        Lothal<\/span><\/li>\n
        Rangpur<\/span><\/li>\n
        Malwan<\/span><\/li>\n
        Rojdi<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        Maharashtra<\/span><\/div>\n
        \n
        Daimabad<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>><\/span><\/h6>\n<\/td>\n
        \n
        Punjab<\/span><\/div>\n
        \n
        Harappa<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>><\/span><\/div>\n
        Balochistan<\/span><\/div>\n
        \n
        Quetta<\/span><\/li>\n
        Dabar Kot<\/span><\/li>\n
        Judeir-jo-daro<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>><\/span><\/div>\n
        Sindh<\/span><\/div>\n
        \n
        Sukkur<\/span><\/li>\n
        Kot-Diji<\/span><\/li>\n
        Mohenjo-daro<\/span><\/li>\n
        Chanhudaro <\/span><\/li>\n
        Amri<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>><\/span><\/div>\n
        Balochistan<\/span><\/div>\n
        \n
        Suktagendor<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n
        \n
        Takhar<\/span><\/div>\n
        \n
        Shortugai<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>><\/span><\/div>\n
        Kandahar<\/span><\/div>\n
        \n
        Mundigak<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
        >>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        $\"Indus$ <\/p>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        <\/span>Indus Valley Sites in India<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n
        <\/span>Kalibangan<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n
        \n
        Modern location – Hanumangarh, Rajasthan<\/li>\n
        River banks – Ghaggar-Hakra River<\/b><\/li>\n
        Discovered by Luigi Pio Tessitori<\/a><\/li>\n
        Known as 3rd capital of Indus Empire.<\/li>\n
        Major findings\n
        \n
        World’s earliest ploughed field – wooden plough<\/b><\/li>\n
        Evidence of irrigation<\/b><\/li>\n
        Massive brick wall around both citadel and lower town<\/li>\n
        Decorative bricks used in flooring only at this city<\/li>\n
        Did not have a drainage system<\/li>\n
        Fire Altars<\/b><\/li>\n
        Bones of camel<\/li>\n
        Horse remains<\/b> (IVC people didn\u2019t use horses)<\/li>\n
        Copper ox<\/li>\n
        Shiva Lingam<\/li>\n
        Evidence of earthquake<\/b><\/li>\n
        Pre and mature Harappan civilization<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n>>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        <\/span>Lothal<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n\n
        Modern location – Ahmedabad District, Gujarat<\/li>\n
        River banks – Bhogava & Sabarmati river<\/b> confluence<\/li>\n
        Discovered by S. R. Rao (ASI)<\/a> in 1954.<\/li>\n
        Major findings\n
        \n
        World’s earliest known dockyard<\/b> and port<\/li>\n
        House had front entrance (exception)<\/li>\n
        The lower part of the city was walled<\/li>\n
        Earliest cultivation of rice – remains of rice husks<\/b><\/li>\n
        Evidence of double burial<\/b> (male and female together)<\/li>\n
        Ivory weight<\/b> balance & ivory scale<\/li>\n
        Seal from Mesopotamia found here<\/li>\n
        Terracotta model of ship has been found<\/li>\n
        Copper dog<\/li>\n
        Bead making factory<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        $\"Dholavira\"$
        Dholavira Excavation<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
        <\/span>Dholavira<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n
        \n
        Modern location – Kutch, Gujarat<\/li>\n
        Discovered by J. P. Joshi (ASI) in 1967-68<\/li>\n
        5th largest site of Indus Valley Civilization and 2nd in India.<\/li>\n
        Dholavira located on the Tropic of Cancer<\/li>\n
        Major findings\n
        \n
        Only site to be divided into 3 parts<\/b>.<\/li>\n
        Water harnessing system<\/li>\n
        Giant water reservoir, Dams<\/b>, Embankments<\/li>\n
        A stadium<\/li>\n
        Rock-cut architecture, use of rocks for constructions<\/b><\/li>\n
        Large-scale use of sandstone<\/b> along with mud brick.<\/li>\n
        Large letters of the Harappan script (sign boards).<\/li>\n
        Shows all three phases of Harappan Culture.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        Rangpur<\/b><\/h4>\n
        \n
        Modern location – Saurashtra, Gujarat<\/li>\n
        River banks – Madar River<\/li>\n
        Discovered by ASI in 1931<\/li>\n
        Major findings\n
        \n
        Evidence of Rice<\/li>\n
        Remains of pre-Harappan and Mature Harappan culture<\/li>\n
        Yellow and grey color pots of pre-Harappan people<\/li>\n
        Flakes<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        Surkotada<\/b><\/h4>\n
        \n
        Modern location – Kutch, Gujarat<\/li>\n
        Discovered by J. P. Joshi (ASI) in 1964<\/li>\n
        Major findings\n
        \n
        Bones of a horse<\/b><\/li>\n
        Stone covered grave<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        $\"Boat$
        Boat with Direction Finding Birds<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        Ropar<\/b><\/h4>\n
        \n
        Modern location – Rupnagar, Punjab<\/li>\n
        River banks – Sutlej river<\/li>\n
        Major findings\n
        \n
        Dog buried<\/b> with humans.<\/li>\n
        Buildings made of stone and soil<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        <\/span>Banawali<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n
        \n
        Modern location – Fatehabad, Haryana<\/li>\n
        River banks – Sarasvati river<\/a><\/li>\n
        Discovered by R.S. Bisht (ASI)<\/li>\n
        Major findings\n
        \n
        Barley Cultivation.<\/li>\n
        Oval shaped settlement.<\/li>\n
        Only city with radial streets.<\/b><\/li>\n
        Toy terracotta models of plough<\/b>.<\/li>\n
        Centre of pre, Mature and Late Harappan civilization<\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        <\/span>Rakhigarhi<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n
        \n
        Modern location – Hisar, Haryana<\/li>\n
        River banks – Sarasvati & Ghaggar river<\/li>\n
        Discovered by ASI in 1963<\/li>\n
        The largest Indus Valley Civilization site,<\/b> almost 350 hectares<\/li>\n
        Major findings\n
        \n
        Shows all three phases of Harappan Culture<\/li>\n
        Female figure similar to the Mohenjodaro \u2018dancing girl\u2019.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        Balu<\/b><\/h4>\n
        \n
        Modern location – Kaithal, Haryana<\/li>\n
        Major findings\n
        \n
        Earliest evidence of garlic<\/b><\/li>\n
        Remains of rice<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        Daimabad<\/b><\/h4>\n
        \n
        Modern location – Ahmadnagar, Maharashtra<\/li>\n
        River banks – Pravara River<\/a><\/li>\n
        Discovered by B. P. Bopardikar in 1958<\/li>\n
        Southernmost site<\/b> of Indus Valley Civilization<\/li>\n
        Major findings\n\n
        Sculpture of bronze buffalo<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        \n
        Sculpture of a bronze chariot<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n
        Sculptures contain arsenical alloying<\/li>\n
        Late-Harappan culture<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        Manda<\/b><\/h4>\n
        \n
        Modern location – Jammu, J&K<\/li>\n
        River banks – Chenab River<\/a><\/li>\n
        Situated in the foothills of Pir Panjal range<\/li>\n
        Northernmost site<\/b> of Indus Valley Civilization<\/li>\n
        Major findings\n
        \n
        This site was established to procure wood<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        Alamgirpur<\/b><\/h4>\n
        \n
        Modern location – Meerut, UP<\/li>\n
        River banks – Yamuna River<\/li>\n
        Discovered by Punjab University in 1974.<\/li>\n
        Easternmost site<\/b> of Indus Valley Civilization<\/li>\n
        Major findings\n
        \n
        Impression of cloth on a trough<\/li>\n
        Late-Harappan culture<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        $\"Indus$
        Mohenjodaro Excavation<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        <\/span>Indus Valley Sites in Pakistan <\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n
        <\/span>Harappa<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n
        \n
        Modern location – Montgomori, Punjab<\/li>\n
        River banks – Ravi river<\/b><\/li>\n
        Discovered by \u2013 Dayaram Sahni in 1921<\/a><\/li>\n
        Charles Mason<\/a> first noticed the ruins of Harappa in 1826.<\/li>\n
        Major findings\n
        \n
        Seals made out of stones<\/li>\n
        Two rows of six granaries<\/a> outside the fort<\/li>\n
        Coffin burial & Graveyard<\/li>\n
        Single room barracks<\/li>\n
        Two red stone idols of dancing girl<\/li>\n
        Naked bust of male, female genitalia<\/li>\n
        Evidence of direct trade with Mesopotamia<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        <\/span>Mohenjodaro<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n\n
        Modern location – Larkana, Sindh<\/li>\n
        River banks – Indus river<\/a><\/li>\n
        Discovered by \u2013 R. D. Banerji (ASI) in 1922<\/a><\/li>\n
        Mohenjodaro means \u201dMound of the dead Men\u201d.<\/li>\n
        2nd largest site<\/b> of Indus Valley Civilization, almost 300 hectares<\/li>\n
        Major findings\n\n
        Suddenly destructed by flood or invasion – discovery of human skeletons together<\/li>\n
        Great Bath<\/a> and Great Granary<\/b><\/li>\n
        Multi-pillared assembly Hall<\/li>\n
        College of Priests<\/li>\n
        Man with Beard \/ Priest king statue<\/li>\n
        Bronze dancing girl<\/b><\/li>\n
        Pashupati seal<\/b><\/li>\n
        Ivory weight balance<\/li>\n
        Shell scale<\/li>\n
        Piece of woven cotton cloth<\/li>\n
        Bangles of clay<\/li>\n
        Superficial evidence of Horse<\/li>\n
        Evidence of ship\/big boat<\/li>\n
        Domestication of chickens<\/li>\n
        Cylinder seals<\/a> of the Mesopotamia<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        <\/span>Chanhudaro<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n\n
        Modern location – Sindh<\/li>\n
        River banks – Sarasvati River<\/li>\n
        This site is near to Mohenjodaro<\/li>\n
        Discovered by Gopal Majumdar in 1930<\/li>\n
        Major findings\n
        \n
        Pre-Harappan and Post-Harappan culture \u2013 Jhangar Culture<\/a> & Jhukar Culture.<\/li>\n
        Only city without citadel<\/b> \/ No fortified structure<\/li>\n
        Bead and bangle factory<\/li>\n
        Ink pot<\/b><\/li>\n
        Evidence of Human sacrifice<\/b><\/li>\n
        Clay model of four wheeler<\/li>\n
        Use of lipstick<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n>>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        <\/span>Koti-Diji<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n\n
        Modern location –\u00a0 Khairpur, Sindh<\/li>\n
        River banks – Zhob River<\/a><\/li>\n
        Discovered in 1955<\/li>\n
        Major findings\n
        \n
        Pre-Harappan site<\/li>\n
        Houses of mud bricks<\/strong> on stone foundations<\/li>\n
        City destroyed by force<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n>>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        $\"indus$
        Pottery<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        Amri<\/b><\/h4>\n\n
        Modern location – Dadu District, Sindh<\/li>\n
        River banks – Indus River<\/li>\n
        Amri was first visited by Alexander Burnes<\/a> in 1831.<\/li>\n
        Major findings\n
        \n
        Remains of Rhinoceros<\/strong><\/li>\n
        Pre-Harappan settlement<\/li>\n
        Transitional culture between pre and post-Harappan culture<\/li>\n
        Trace of Jhangar culture in Late Harappan<\/li>\n
        Fire altars<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n>>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        Suktagendor<\/b><\/h4>\n\n
        Modern location – Gwadar, Baluchistan<\/li>\n
        River banks – Dasht River<\/li>\n
        Discovered by Edward Mockler in 1875<\/li>\n
        Westernmost site<\/b> of Indus Valley Civilization<\/li>\n
        Major findings\n\n
        Ash filled pot<\/li>\n
        Copper axe, flint blades without cores<\/li>\n
        Originally a port but later cut off from sea due to coastal uplift<\/li>\n
        Had trade links with Babylon<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        Balakot<\/b><\/h4>\n\n
        Modern location – Lasbela, Balochistan<\/li>\n
        River banks –<\/li>\n
        Discovered by<\/li>\n
        Major findings\n
        \n
        Earliest evidence of furnace<\/li>\n
        Seaport<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        <\/span>Indus Valley Sites in Afghanistan<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n
        <\/span>Shortugai<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n
        \n
        Modern location – Takhar, Afghanistan<\/li>\n
        River banks – Amu Darya river<\/a><\/li>\n
        Major findings\n
        \n
        Indus Valley Civilization trading colony<\/b><\/li>\n
        Established around 2000 BC<\/li>\n
        Lapis lazuli<\/a> mines<\/li>\n
        Camel trade<\/li>\n
        Ploughed field & flax seeds – Dry land farming<\/li>\n
        Canal irrigation system<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        $\"indus$
        Burnt Brick<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        <\/span>Town Planning<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n
        \n
        Harappan civilization is known for its urban outlook and sophisticated sense of city planning.<\/li>\n
        In most of the Harappan city was divided into two parts\n
        \n
        Citadel \/ Raised Part\n
        \n
        This part occupied a smaller area.<\/li>\n
        Frequently situated to the west of the city.<\/li>\n
        Rulers of the city lived here.<\/li>\n
        It contained public buildings, granaries, and important workshops.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
        Lower Part\n
        \n
        The common citizens lived and carried on their professional lives here.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
        City planning roughly followed a grid pattern<\/b>.<\/li>\n
        Streets ran from north and cut at right angles.<\/li>\n
        The streets were wide, the main street being 10 meters wide.<\/li>\n
        Streets divide the town into rectangular and square blocks.<\/li>\n
        There were lamp-posts at intervals.<\/li>\n
        Bricks were burnt and identical ratio of 1:2:4<\/b> in terms of thickness : width : length.<\/li>\n
        Uniformity in the average size of bricks\n
        \n
        7 \u00d7 14 \u00d7 28 cm for houses<\/li>\n
        10 \u00d7 20 \u00d7 40 cm for city walls<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
        Drains were made of mortar, lime and gypsum.<\/li>\n
        Drains were covered<\/b> with large brick slabs for easy cleaning.<\/li>\n
        Houses were often of two or more storeys, though varied in size but quite monotonous.<\/li>\n
        No window faced the streets.<\/li>\n
        Houses had tiled bathrooms<\/b>.<\/li>\n
        Some houses had their own wells.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        $\"drainage$
        Drainage System in Lothal<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        <\/span>Society<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n
        \n
        The Indus Valley society was an urban society<\/b>.<\/li>\n
        Most of the people were middle classes.<\/li>\n
        According to excavation, we can divide three social groups\n
        \n
        Ruler class<\/li>\n
        Rich merchants<\/li>\n
        Labour class lived in the lower part of the city<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
        The Harappa civilization people were experts in the use of the potter\u2019s wheel<\/b>.<\/li>\n
        They were poor in artistic works of stone.<\/li>\n
        Redware pottery<\/b> painted with black designs was popular.<\/li>\n
        Pots were used for storing grain, and water or used for brewing fermented alcoholic beverages.<\/li>\n
        A lot of terracotta<\/a> has been found at many sites.<\/li>\n
        More female figurines have been uncovered then male figurines.<\/li>\n
        The Harappan people refined the art of bead-making, and jewellery of gold and silver.<\/li>\n
        At Allahdino<\/a> a lot of necklaces made of gold, silver and stones have been found.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        <\/span>Economy of Indus Valley Civilization<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n\n
        Indus valley people had a good trade relations with Mesopotamian and Persian civilizations.<\/li>\n
        The Mesopotamians called the Indus Region \u2018Meluhha<\/b>\u2019.<\/li>\n
        The Mesopotamian texts speak of three intermediate trading stations called\n\n
        Dilmun – Bahrain on Persian Gulf<\/li>\n
        Makan – Makran coast, Oman<\/li>\n
        Meluhha<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
        Every merchant probably had a seal bearing an emblem with brief description on one side<\/a>.<\/li>\n
        Standard Harappan seal was a square \/ oblong plaque made of steatite stone<\/a>.<\/li>\n
        Purpose of the seal was to mark the ownership of property.<\/li>\n
        Key aspects of trade and economy are as follows:\n
        \n
        They carried out internal and external trade.<\/li>\n
        There was barter trade, no metallic money<\/b> was in circulation.<\/li>\n
        Inland transport used bullock carts.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
        There were bead-making factories at Chanhudaro and Lothal.<\/li>\n
        There was a dockyard in Lothal and sea ports at Rangpur, Somnath and Balakot.<\/li>\n
        Weights and measures of Indus valley civilization was standardized and accurate.<\/li>\n
        Weights followed a binary<\/a> and decimal system.<\/li>\n
        Chert, limestone, and steatite were used to make weights.<\/li>\n
        Weights were cubical in shape<\/a>.<\/li>\n
        Measures of length were based on the foot and the cubit<\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        <\/span>Agriculture<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n
        \n
        1st evidence of cotton in the world is found in Mehrgarh<\/b>.<\/li>\n
        It was known as \u2018Sindon\u2019 by the Greeks as from Sindh.<\/li>\n
        People sowed seeds in the flood plains in November, and reaped their harvests of wheat and barley in April, before the advent of the next flood.<\/li>\n
        They ploughed fields with the help of wooden ploughs.<\/li>\n
        They produced sufficient food grains to feed themselves and the surplus was stored in granaries.<\/li>\n
        The Harappan people grew wheat, barley, horse gram, peas, melon, watermelon, sesame, dates, millets, grapes, henna, garlic, mustard, rice.<\/li>\n
        Double cropping <\/b>was started by Harappan people.\n\n
        Wheat and barley – winter crops.<\/li>\n
        Rice, millets, and sorghum – summer crops.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
        They also exploited riverine and marine resources wherever possible.<\/li>\n
        They domesticated cattle, goats, humped bulls, sheep, pigs, asses, camels, cats and dogs.<\/li>\n
        Horse wasn\u2019t in use.<\/li>\n
        Indus valley people were well acquainted with the elephant and the rhinoceros.<\/li>\n
        Tigers were often represented in figurines but leopards were rare.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        <\/span>Mining<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n
        \n
        Copper – Khetri<\/b>, Baluchistan<\/li>\n
        Lapis lazuli – Shortugai<\/li>\n
        Turquoise – Khorasan<\/li>\n
        Bitumin<\/a> – Baluchistan<\/li>\n
        Iron<\/strong> was unknown to the Indus people.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        <\/span>Imports & Exports<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n
        \n
        Imports\n
        \n
        Gold – Afghanistan, Iran, Kolar<\/b>.<\/li>\n
        Tin – Afghanistan, Iran.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        \n
        Jade – Pamir<\/li>\n
        Steatite – Tapi Chahya (Iran)<\/li>\n
        Bitumin – Mesopotamia.<\/li>\n
        Lead – South India.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        \n
        Exports\n
        \n
        Agricultural products<\/li>\n
        Cotton goods<\/li>\n
        Terracotta figurines, pottery<\/li>\n
        Beads, conch- shell, ivory products<\/li>\n
        Copper<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        $\"Indus$
        Indus Valley Seals<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        <\/span>Religion of Indus Valley Civilization<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n
        \n
        Indus Valley civilization is considered a secular society<\/b>.<\/li>\n
        No structure of the temple<\/b> has been found.<\/li>\n
        People generally worshipped:\n
        \n
        Mother goddess<\/li>\n
        Pashupati Mahadeva or proto-Shiva<\/b><\/li>\n
        Lingam (phallus) and Yoni worship (cult of fertility)<\/li>\n
        Pipal tree<\/li>\n
        Humped Bull<\/li>\n
        Birds (dove and pigeon)<\/li>\n
        One-horned unicorn (may in fact be the rhinoceros)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
        Dead bodies<\/b> were placed in a north-south direction<\/b>.<\/li>\n
        They generally accompanied food, pottery, ornaments, and tools with dead bodies.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
        <\/span>Causes of the Decline<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n
        \n
        Archaeologists now believe that the civilization did not come to an abrupt end but gradually declined<\/b>.<\/li>\n
        People moved eastwards and cities were abandoned.<\/li>\n
        Different theories are given by archaeologists\n
        \n
        Aryan Invasion – Mortimer Wheeler, Gordon<\/li>\n
        Ecological disturbance – Fairchild<\/li>\n
        Change in River course – Lambrick, Dales<\/li>\n
        Low Rainfall – Stein<\/li>\n
        Flood – Macay, S.R. Rao<\/li>\n
        Drying of Ghaghar and Increasing Aridity – D.P. Aggarwal, Sood<\/li>\n
        Earthquake – Raikes and Dales<\/li>\n
        Natural Calamities – K.A.R. Kennedy<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
        Other causes cited include deforestation<\/b> and climate change.<\/li>\n
        The Aryan invasion theory has now been debunked.<\/li>\n
        It is possible that some cities were destroyed by floods but not all.<\/li>\n
        New cities emerged only about 1400 years later.<\/li>\n
        The Indus Valley people continued to evolve even in the face of declining monsoons.<\/li>\n
        People shifted their crop patterns from large-grained cereals to drought-resistant species.<\/li>\n
        The organised large storage system of the mature Harappan period collapsed for the lower yield.<\/li>\n
        More individual household-based crop processing and storage systems evolved.<\/li>\n
        This was the main reason for the deurbanisation of the civilization<\/b>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
        >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
        Indus Valley Civilization was a Bronze Age civilization in the northwestern regions of Indian subcontinent. Harappa & Mohenjo daro are two biggest cities.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":5565,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[12],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-149","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-ancient-india"],"yoast_head":"\nIndus Valley Civilization - (3300 B.C to 1400 B.C) - wbpscupsc<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"Indus Valley Civilization was a Bronze Age civilization in the northwestern regions of Indian subcontinent. 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\n India<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n	\n Pakistan<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n	\n Afghanistan<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n J&K<\/span><\/div>\n \n Manda<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>><\/span><\/h6>\n Punjab<\/span><\/div>\n \n Ropar<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>><\/span><\/h6>\n Haryana<\/span><\/div>\n \n Balu<\/span><\/li>\n Banawali<\/span><\/li>\n Rakhigarhi<\/span><\/li>\n Farmana<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>><\/span><\/h6>\n UP<\/span><\/div>\n \n Alamgirpur<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>><\/span><\/h6>\n Rajasthan<\/span><\/div>\n \n Kalibangan<\/span><\/li>\n Baror<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>><\/span><\/h6>\n Gujarat<\/span><\/div>\n \n Desalpur<\/span><\/li>\n Surkotada<\/span><\/li>\n Dholavira <\/span><\/li>\n Lothal<\/span><\/li>\n Rangpur<\/span><\/li>\n Malwan<\/span><\/li>\n Rojdi<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>><\/span><\/h6>\n Maharashtra<\/span><\/div>\n \n Daimabad<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>><\/span><\/h6>\n<\/td>\n	\n Punjab<\/span><\/div>\n \n Harappa<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>><\/span><\/div>\n Balochistan<\/span><\/div>\n \n Quetta<\/span><\/li>\n Dabar Kot<\/span><\/li>\n Judeir-jo-daro<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>><\/span><\/div>\n Sindh<\/span><\/div>\n \n Sukkur<\/span><\/li>\n Kot-Diji<\/span><\/li>\n Mohenjo-daro<\/span><\/li>\n Chanhudaro <\/span><\/li>\n Amri<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>><\/span><\/div>\n Balochistan<\/span><\/div>\n \n Suktagendor<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n	\n Takhar<\/span><\/div>\n \n Shortugai<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>><\/span><\/div>\n Kandahar<\/span><\/div>\n \n Mundigak<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n >>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n $\"Indus$ <\/p>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n <\/span>Indus Valley Sites in India<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n <\/span>Kalibangan<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n \n Modern location – Hanumangarh, Rajasthan<\/li>\n River banks – Ghaggar-Hakra River<\/b><\/li>\n Discovered by Luigi Pio Tessitori<\/a><\/li>\n Known as 3rd capital of Indus Empire.<\/li>\n Major findings\n \n World’s earliest ploughed field – wooden plough<\/b><\/li>\n Evidence of irrigation<\/b><\/li>\n Massive brick wall around both citadel and lower town<\/li>\n Decorative bricks used in flooring only at this city<\/li>\n Did not have a drainage system<\/li>\n Fire Altars<\/b><\/li>\n Bones of camel<\/li>\n Horse remains<\/b> (IVC people didn\u2019t use horses)<\/li>\n Copper ox<\/li>\n Shiva Lingam<\/li>\n Evidence of earthquake<\/b><\/li>\n Pre and mature Harappan civilization<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n>>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n <\/span>Lothal<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n\n Modern location – Ahmedabad District, Gujarat<\/li>\n River banks – Bhogava & Sabarmati river<\/b> confluence<\/li>\n Discovered by S. R. Rao (ASI)<\/a> in 1954.<\/li>\n Major findings\n \n World’s earliest known dockyard<\/b> and port<\/li>\n House had front entrance (exception)<\/li>\n The lower part of the city was walled<\/li>\n Earliest cultivation of rice – remains of rice husks<\/b><\/li>\n Evidence of double burial<\/b> (male and female together)<\/li>\n Ivory weight<\/b> balance & ivory scale<\/li>\n Seal from Mesopotamia found here<\/li>\n Terracotta model of ship has been found<\/li>\n Copper dog<\/li>\n Bead making factory<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n $\"Dholavira\"$ Dholavira Excavation<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n <\/span>Dholavira<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n \n Modern location – Kutch, Gujarat<\/li>\n Discovered by J. P. Joshi (ASI) in 1967-68<\/li>\n 5th largest site of Indus Valley Civilization and 2nd in India.<\/li>\n Dholavira located on the Tropic of Cancer<\/li>\n Major findings\n \n Only site to be divided into 3 parts<\/b>.<\/li>\n Water harnessing system<\/li>\n Giant water reservoir, Dams<\/b>, Embankments<\/li>\n A stadium<\/li>\n Rock-cut architecture, use of rocks for constructions<\/b><\/li>\n Large-scale use of sandstone<\/b> along with mud brick.<\/li>\n Large letters of the Harappan script (sign boards).<\/li>\n Shows all three phases of Harappan Culture.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n Rangpur<\/b><\/h4>\n \n Modern location – Saurashtra, Gujarat<\/li>\n River banks – Madar River<\/li>\n Discovered by ASI in 1931<\/li>\n Major findings\n \n Evidence of Rice<\/li>\n Remains of pre-Harappan and Mature Harappan culture<\/li>\n Yellow and grey color pots of pre-Harappan people<\/li>\n Flakes<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n Surkotada<\/b><\/h4>\n \n Modern location – Kutch, Gujarat<\/li>\n Discovered by J. P. Joshi (ASI) in 1964<\/li>\n Major findings\n \n Bones of a horse<\/b><\/li>\n Stone covered grave<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n $\"Boat$ Boat with Direction Finding Birds<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n Ropar<\/b><\/h4>\n \n Modern location – Rupnagar, Punjab<\/li>\n River banks – Sutlej river<\/li>\n Major findings\n \n Dog buried<\/b> with humans.<\/li>\n Buildings made of stone and soil<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n <\/span>Banawali<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n \n Modern location – Fatehabad, Haryana<\/li>\n River banks – Sarasvati river<\/a><\/li>\n Discovered by R.S. Bisht (ASI)<\/li>\n Major findings\n \n Barley Cultivation.<\/li>\n Oval shaped settlement.<\/li>\n Only city with radial streets.<\/b><\/li>\n Toy terracotta models of plough<\/b>.<\/li>\n Centre of pre, Mature and Late Harappan civilization<\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n <\/span>Rakhigarhi<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n \n Modern location – Hisar, Haryana<\/li>\n River banks – Sarasvati & Ghaggar river<\/li>\n Discovered by ASI in 1963<\/li>\n The largest Indus Valley Civilization site,<\/b> almost 350 hectares<\/li>\n Major findings\n \n Shows all three phases of Harappan Culture<\/li>\n Female figure similar to the Mohenjodaro \u2018dancing girl\u2019.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n Balu<\/b><\/h4>\n \n Modern location – Kaithal, Haryana<\/li>\n Major findings\n \n Earliest evidence of garlic<\/b><\/li>\n Remains of rice<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n Daimabad<\/b><\/h4>\n \n Modern location – Ahmadnagar, Maharashtra<\/li>\n River banks – Pravara River<\/a><\/li>\n Discovered by B. P. Bopardikar in 1958<\/li>\n Southernmost site<\/b> of Indus Valley Civilization<\/li>\n Major findings\n\n Sculpture of bronze buffalo<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n \n Sculpture of a bronze chariot<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n Sculptures contain arsenical alloying<\/li>\n Late-Harappan culture<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n Manda<\/b><\/h4>\n \n Modern location – Jammu, J&K<\/li>\n River banks – Chenab River<\/a><\/li>\n Situated in the foothills of Pir Panjal range<\/li>\n Northernmost site<\/b> of Indus Valley Civilization<\/li>\n Major findings\n \n This site was established to procure wood<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n Alamgirpur<\/b><\/h4>\n \n Modern location – Meerut, UP<\/li>\n River banks – Yamuna River<\/li>\n Discovered by Punjab University in 1974.<\/li>\n Easternmost site<\/b> of Indus Valley Civilization<\/li>\n Major findings\n \n Impression of cloth on a trough<\/li>\n Late-Harappan culture<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n $\"Indus$ Mohenjodaro Excavation<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n <\/span>Indus Valley Sites in Pakistan <\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n <\/span>Harappa<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n \n Modern location – Montgomori, Punjab<\/li>\n River banks – Ravi river<\/b><\/li>\n Discovered by \u2013 Dayaram Sahni in 1921<\/a><\/li>\n Charles Mason<\/a> first noticed the ruins of Harappa in 1826.<\/li>\n Major findings\n \n Seals made out of stones<\/li>\n Two rows of six granaries<\/a> outside the fort<\/li>\n Coffin burial & Graveyard<\/li>\n Single room barracks<\/li>\n Two red stone idols of dancing girl<\/li>\n Naked bust of male, female genitalia<\/li>\n Evidence of direct trade with Mesopotamia<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n <\/span>Mohenjodaro<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n\n Modern location – Larkana, Sindh<\/li>\n River banks – Indus river<\/a><\/li>\n Discovered by \u2013 R. D. Banerji (ASI) in 1922<\/a><\/li>\n Mohenjodaro means \u201dMound of the dead Men\u201d.<\/li>\n 2nd largest site<\/b> of Indus Valley Civilization, almost 300 hectares<\/li>\n Major findings\n\n Suddenly destructed by flood or invasion – discovery of human skeletons together<\/li>\n Great Bath<\/a> and Great Granary<\/b><\/li>\n Multi-pillared assembly Hall<\/li>\n College of Priests<\/li>\n Man with Beard \/ Priest king statue<\/li>\n Bronze dancing girl<\/b><\/li>\n Pashupati seal<\/b><\/li>\n Ivory weight balance<\/li>\n Shell scale<\/li>\n Piece of woven cotton cloth<\/li>\n Bangles of clay<\/li>\n Superficial evidence of Horse<\/li>\n Evidence of ship\/big boat<\/li>\n Domestication of chickens<\/li>\n Cylinder seals<\/a> of the Mesopotamia<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n <\/span>Chanhudaro<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n\n Modern location – Sindh<\/li>\n River banks – Sarasvati River<\/li>\n This site is near to Mohenjodaro<\/li>\n Discovered by Gopal Majumdar in 1930<\/li>\n Major findings\n \n Pre-Harappan and Post-Harappan culture \u2013 Jhangar Culture<\/a> & Jhukar Culture.<\/li>\n Only city without citadel<\/b> \/ No fortified structure<\/li>\n Bead and bangle factory<\/li>\n Ink pot<\/b><\/li>\n Evidence of Human sacrifice<\/b><\/li>\n Clay model of four wheeler<\/li>\n Use of lipstick<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n>>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n <\/span>Koti-Diji<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n\n Modern location –\u00a0 Khairpur, Sindh<\/li>\n River banks – Zhob River<\/a><\/li>\n Discovered in 1955<\/li>\n Major findings\n \n Pre-Harappan site<\/li>\n Houses of mud bricks<\/strong> on stone foundations<\/li>\n City destroyed by force<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n>>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n $\"indus$ Pottery<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n Amri<\/b><\/h4>\n\n Modern location – Dadu District, Sindh<\/li>\n River banks – Indus River<\/li>\n Amri was first visited by Alexander Burnes<\/a> in 1831.<\/li>\n Major findings\n \n Remains of Rhinoceros<\/strong><\/li>\n Pre-Harappan settlement<\/li>\n Transitional culture between pre and post-Harappan culture<\/li>\n Trace of Jhangar culture in Late Harappan<\/li>\n Fire altars<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n>>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n Suktagendor<\/b><\/h4>\n\n Modern location – Gwadar, Baluchistan<\/li>\n River banks – Dasht River<\/li>\n Discovered by Edward Mockler in 1875<\/li>\n Westernmost site<\/b> of Indus Valley Civilization<\/li>\n Major findings\n\n Ash filled pot<\/li>\n Copper axe, flint blades without cores<\/li>\n Originally a port but later cut off from sea due to coastal uplift<\/li>\n Had trade links with Babylon<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n Balakot<\/b><\/h4>\n\n Modern location – Lasbela, Balochistan<\/li>\n River banks –<\/li>\n Discovered by<\/li>\n Major findings\n \n Earliest evidence of furnace<\/li>\n Seaport<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n <\/span>Indus Valley Sites in Afghanistan<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n <\/span>Shortugai<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n \n Modern location – Takhar, Afghanistan<\/li>\n River banks – Amu Darya river<\/a><\/li>\n Major findings\n \n Indus Valley Civilization trading colony<\/b><\/li>\n Established around 2000 BC<\/li>\n Lapis lazuli<\/a> mines<\/li>\n Camel trade<\/li>\n Ploughed field & flax seeds – Dry land farming<\/li>\n Canal irrigation system<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n $\"indus$ Burnt Brick<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n <\/span>Town Planning<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n \n Harappan civilization is known for its urban outlook and sophisticated sense of city planning.<\/li>\n In most of the Harappan city was divided into two parts\n \n Citadel \/ Raised Part\n \n This part occupied a smaller area.<\/li>\n Frequently situated to the west of the city.<\/li>\n Rulers of the city lived here.<\/li>\n It contained public buildings, granaries, and important workshops.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n Lower Part\n \n The common citizens lived and carried on their professional lives here.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n City planning roughly followed a grid pattern<\/b>.<\/li>\n Streets ran from north and cut at right angles.<\/li>\n The streets were wide, the main street being 10 meters wide.<\/li>\n Streets divide the town into rectangular and square blocks.<\/li>\n There were lamp-posts at intervals.<\/li>\n Bricks were burnt and identical ratio of 1:2:4<\/b> in terms of thickness : width : length.<\/li>\n Uniformity in the average size of bricks\n \n 7 \u00d7 14 \u00d7 28 cm for houses<\/li>\n 10 \u00d7 20 \u00d7 40 cm for city walls<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n Drains were made of mortar, lime and gypsum.<\/li>\n Drains were covered<\/b> with large brick slabs for easy cleaning.<\/li>\n Houses were often of two or more storeys, though varied in size but quite monotonous.<\/li>\n No window faced the streets.<\/li>\n Houses had tiled bathrooms<\/b>.<\/li>\n Some houses had their own wells.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n $\"drainage$ Drainage System in Lothal<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n <\/span>Society<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n \n The Indus Valley society was an urban society<\/b>.<\/li>\n Most of the people were middle classes.<\/li>\n According to excavation, we can divide three social groups\n \n Ruler class<\/li>\n Rich merchants<\/li>\n Labour class lived in the lower part of the city<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n The Harappa civilization people were experts in the use of the potter\u2019s wheel<\/b>.<\/li>\n They were poor in artistic works of stone.<\/li>\n Redware pottery<\/b> painted with black designs was popular.<\/li>\n Pots were used for storing grain, and water or used for brewing fermented alcoholic beverages.<\/li>\n A lot of terracotta<\/a> has been found at many sites.<\/li>\n More female figurines have been uncovered then male figurines.<\/li>\n The Harappan people refined the art of bead-making, and jewellery of gold and silver.<\/li>\n At Allahdino<\/a> a lot of necklaces made of gold, silver and stones have been found.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n <\/span>Economy of Indus Valley Civilization<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n\n Indus valley people had a good trade relations with Mesopotamian and Persian civilizations.<\/li>\n The Mesopotamians called the Indus Region \u2018Meluhha<\/b>\u2019.<\/li>\n The Mesopotamian texts speak of three intermediate trading stations called\n\n Dilmun – Bahrain on Persian Gulf<\/li>\n Makan – Makran coast, Oman<\/li>\n Meluhha<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n Every merchant probably had a seal bearing an emblem with brief description on one side<\/a>.<\/li>\n Standard Harappan seal was a square \/ oblong plaque made of steatite stone<\/a>.<\/li>\n Purpose of the seal was to mark the ownership of property.<\/li>\n Key aspects of trade and economy are as follows:\n \n They carried out internal and external trade.<\/li>\n There was barter trade, no metallic money<\/b> was in circulation.<\/li>\n Inland transport used bullock carts.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n There were bead-making factories at Chanhudaro and Lothal.<\/li>\n There was a dockyard in Lothal and sea ports at Rangpur, Somnath and Balakot.<\/li>\n Weights and measures of Indus valley civilization was standardized and accurate.<\/li>\n Weights followed a binary<\/a> and decimal system.<\/li>\n Chert, limestone, and steatite were used to make weights.<\/li>\n Weights were cubical in shape<\/a>.<\/li>\n Measures of length were based on the foot and the cubit<\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n <\/span>Agriculture<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n \n 1st evidence of cotton in the world is found in Mehrgarh<\/b>.<\/li>\n It was known as \u2018Sindon\u2019 by the Greeks as from Sindh.<\/li>\n People sowed seeds in the flood plains in November, and reaped their harvests of wheat and barley in April, before the advent of the next flood.<\/li>\n They ploughed fields with the help of wooden ploughs.<\/li>\n They produced sufficient food grains to feed themselves and the surplus was stored in granaries.<\/li>\n The Harappan people grew wheat, barley, horse gram, peas, melon, watermelon, sesame, dates, millets, grapes, henna, garlic, mustard, rice.<\/li>\n Double cropping <\/b>was started by Harappan people.\n\n Wheat and barley – winter crops.<\/li>\n Rice, millets, and sorghum – summer crops.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n They also exploited riverine and marine resources wherever possible.<\/li>\n They domesticated cattle, goats, humped bulls, sheep, pigs, asses, camels, cats and dogs.<\/li>\n Horse wasn\u2019t in use.<\/li>\n Indus valley people were well acquainted with the elephant and the rhinoceros.<\/li>\n Tigers were often represented in figurines but leopards were rare.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n <\/span>Mining<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n \n Copper – Khetri<\/b>, Baluchistan<\/li>\n Lapis lazuli – Shortugai<\/li>\n Turquoise – Khorasan<\/li>\n Bitumin<\/a> – Baluchistan<\/li>\n Iron<\/strong> was unknown to the Indus people.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n <\/span>Imports & Exports<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n \n Imports\n \n Gold – Afghanistan, Iran, Kolar<\/b>.<\/li>\n Tin – Afghanistan, Iran.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n \n Jade – Pamir<\/li>\n Steatite – Tapi Chahya (Iran)<\/li>\n Bitumin – Mesopotamia.<\/li>\n Lead – South India.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n \n Exports\n \n Agricultural products<\/li>\n Cotton goods<\/li>\n Terracotta figurines, pottery<\/li>\n Beads, conch- shell, ivory products<\/li>\n Copper<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n $\"Indus$ Indus Valley Seals<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n <\/span>Religion of Indus Valley Civilization<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n \n Indus Valley civilization is considered a secular society<\/b>.<\/li>\n No structure of the temple<\/b> has been found.<\/li>\n People generally worshipped:\n \n Mother goddess<\/li>\n Pashupati Mahadeva or proto-Shiva<\/b><\/li>\n Lingam (phallus) and Yoni worship (cult of fertility)<\/li>\n Pipal tree<\/li>\n Humped Bull<\/li>\n Birds (dove and pigeon)<\/li>\n One-horned unicorn (may in fact be the rhinoceros)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n Dead bodies<\/b> were placed in a north-south direction<\/b>.<\/li>\n They generally accompanied food, pottery, ornaments, and tools with dead bodies.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n <\/span>Causes of the Decline<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n \n Archaeologists now believe that the civilization did not come to an abrupt end but gradually declined<\/b>.<\/li>\n People moved eastwards and cities were abandoned.<\/li>\n Different theories are given by archaeologists\n \n Aryan Invasion – Mortimer Wheeler, Gordon<\/li>\n Ecological disturbance – Fairchild<\/li>\n Change in River course – Lambrick, Dales<\/li>\n Low Rainfall – Stein<\/li>\n Flood – Macay, S.R. Rao<\/li>\n Drying of Ghaghar and Increasing Aridity – D.P. Aggarwal, Sood<\/li>\n Earthquake – Raikes and Dales<\/li>\n Natural Calamities – K.A.R. Kennedy<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n Other causes cited include deforestation<\/b> and climate change.<\/li>\n The Aryan invasion theory has now been debunked.<\/li>\n It is possible that some cities were destroyed by floods but not all.<\/li>\n New cities emerged only about 1400 years later.<\/li>\n The Indus Valley people continued to evolve even in the face of declining monsoons.<\/li>\n People shifted their crop patterns from large-grained cereals to drought-resistant species.<\/li>\n The organised large storage system of the mature Harappan period collapsed for the lower yield.<\/li>\n More individual household-based crop processing and storage systems evolved.<\/li>\n This was the main reason for the deurbanisation of the civilization<\/b>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n >>>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":" Indus Valley Civilization was a Bronze Age civilization in the northwestern regions of Indian subcontinent. 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>>>><\/span><\/h6>\nMaharashtra<\/span><\/div>\n\nDaimabad<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n<\/td>\n

>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n<\/td>\n

<\/span>Harappa<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n\nModern location – Montgomori, Punjab<\/li>\nRiver banks – Ravi river<\/b><\/li>\nDiscovered by \u2013 Dayaram Sahni in 1921<\/a><\/li>\nCharles Mason<\/a> first noticed the ruins of Harappa in 1826.<\/li>\nMajor findings\n\nSeals made out of stones<\/li>\n

<\/span>Indus Valley Sites in Afghanistan<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n<\/span>Shortugai<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n\nModern location – Takhar, Afghanistan<\/li>\nRiver banks – Amu Darya river<\/a><\/li>\nMajor findings\n\nIndus Valley Civilization trading colony<\/b><\/li>\nEstablished around 2000 BC<\/li>\n

<\/span>Shortugai<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n\nModern location – Takhar, Afghanistan<\/li>\nRiver banks – Amu Darya river<\/a><\/li>\nMajor findings\n\nIndus Valley Civilization trading colony<\/b><\/li>\nEstablished around 2000 BC<\/li>\n

>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n
Maharashtra<\/span><\/div>\n
\n
Daimabad<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
>>>><\/span><\/h6>\n<\/td>\n