Expansion of British Rule in India

subsidiary alliance doctrine of lapse

• The ‘first empire’ stretching across the Atlantic towards America and the West Indies.
• The ‘second empire’ beginning around 1783 (Peace of Paris) and swinging towards the East-Asia and Africa.
• Imperial history of Britain started with the conquest of Ireland in the sixteenth century.
• Initially Company officials started acquiring territory just to promote and protect their trade interests.
• They came to realize how easily they could pit one local ruler against another and began to interfere in local politics and, in the process, acquired territories.
• Later on the British politicians back in Britain and the administrators in India worked on a clear desire to establish an empire.
• Process of imperial expansion and consolidation of British paramountcy was carried on by Company during the 1757-1857.
• There was 2-fold method
  • Policy of annexation by conquest or war
  • Policy of annexation by diplomacy and administrative mechanisms

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Mysore’s Resistance to the Company

1st Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69)

• 1st Anglo-Mysore War started in 1767.
• Nizam, the Marathas, and the English allied together against Haidar Ali.
• But Haidar Ali trun Nizam and Maratha neutral by his diplomatic skill
• He suddenly attacked Madras.
• English has to conclude a very humiliating Treaty of Madras, 1769.
• 1st Anglo-Mysore War came to end with this treaty.

2nd Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84)

• Haidar Ali accused the English of breach of faith of the Treaty of Madras when in 1771 Marathas attacked him.
• French were much more helpful than the English in meeting his army’s requirement of guns, saltpetre and lead.
• Haidar Ali considered the English attempt to capture Mahe a direct challenge to his authority.
• Haidar Ali forged an anti-English alliance with the Marathas and the Nizam in Anglo-Mysore War.
• He suffer a defeat at Porto Novo in November 1781.
• Haidar Ali died of cancer on 1782.
• His son, Tipu Sultan, carried on war without any positive outcome
• Fed up with an inconclusive war, both sides opted for peace, negotiating the Treaty of Mangalore (March, 1784).
• 2nd Anglo-Mysore War came into end.

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3rd Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92)

• 1790, Tipu declared war against Travancore for the restoration of his rights, and 3rd Anglo-Mysore War was started.
• 1790, Tipu defeated the English under General Meadows.
• 1791, Cornwallis took the leadership and at the head of a large army marched through Ambur and Vellore to Bangalore and from there to Seringapatam.
• With the help of Nizam and Maratha English won against Tipu on the second attempt.
• Treaty of Seringapatam 1792 was signed between Tipu Sultan, East India Company, Nizam of Hyderabad, and Maratha Empire.
• Tipu Sultan has to surrender half of his territory.
• Tipu’s two sons were taken as hostages by the Company.

4th Anglo-Mysore War (1799)

• In 1798, Lord Wellesley became the new Governor General.
• 4th Anglo-Mysore War began on April 17, 1799, and ended on May 4, 1799 with the fall of Seringapatam.
• Tipu was defeated first by General Stuart and then by General Harris.
• Arthur Wellesley, the brother of Lord Wellesley, also participated in the war.
• In 4th Anglo-Mysore War, English were again helped by the Marathas and the Nizam.
• Tipu laid down his life fighting bravely.
• English chose a boy from the earlier Hindu royal family of Mysore (Wodeyars) as the maharaja and imposed on him the subsidiary alliance system.
• 1831 William Bentinck took control of Mysore on grounds of mis-governance.
• 1881 Lord Ripon restored the kingdom to its ruler.

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Anglo-Maratha Struggle

• Defeat at Panipat and later the death of the young Peshwa, Madhavrao I, in 1772, weakened power of Peshwas.
• English in Bombay wanted to establish a government like Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
• Divided house of the Marathas that encouraged the English to hope for success in their venture.

1st Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82)

• After the death of Madhavrao in 1772, his brother Narayanrao succeeded him as the fifth peshwa.
• His uncle, Raghunathrao, killed him and named himself as the next peshwa.
• Narayanrao’s widow, Gangabai, gave birth to a son named ‘Sawai’ Madhavrao.
• 12 Maratha chiefs (Barabhai), led by Nana Phadnavis, made the infant as the new peshwa.
• Raghunathrao sought help from the English at Bombay and signed the Treaty of Surat in 1775.
• Under the treaty, Raghunathrao ceded the territories of Salsette and Bassein to the English etc.
• In return, the English were to provide Raghunathrao with 2,500 soldiers.
• Battle at Talegaon 1776 was fought in which Marathas led by Nana Phadnavis defeated British.
• British Calcutta Council, condemned the Treaty of Surat and sent Colonel Upton to Pune for new treaty.
• Treaty of Purandhar, 1776 signed with Raghunath Rao and promising him a pension.
• 1777, Nana Phadnavis violated his treaty with the Calcutta Council by granting French a port on the west coast.
• English and the Maratha armies met on the outskirts of Pune.
• English defeated and surrendered in Jan 1779 and signed the Treaty of  Wadgaon.
• Warren Hastings rejected the Treaty of Wadgaon and sent a large force of soldiers.
• 1781 the English, under General Camac, finally defeated Sindhia at Sipri.
• Sindhia proposed a new treaty between the Peshwa and the English
• Treaty of Salbai, 1782 signed after a 2 years of deadlock and war.
• It was ratified by Hastings and Phadnavis.
• The treaty guaranteed peace between two sides for 20 years.
• English returned all the Maratha territories except Salsette.
• English should not offer any further support to Raghunathrao and  Peshwa should grant him a maintenance allowance.
• Peshwa should not support any other European nation.

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2nd Anglo Maratha War (1803-1805)

• After Death of Madhavrao in 1795, Bajirao II son of Raghunathrao, became the Peshwa.
• Death of Nana Phadnavis in 1800 gave the British an added advantage.
• After his death, Bhonsle defeated Sindhia and Bajirao II.
• Baji Rao II fled to Bassein 1802 and signed Subsidiary Alliance treaty with English Treaty of Bassein 1802.
• Sindhia and Bhonsle attempted to save Maratha independence.
• English under Arthur Wellesley defeated the combined armies of Sindhia and Bhonsle.
• They forced to conclude separate subsidiary treaties with the English.
• In 1804, Yashwantrao Holkar made an attempt to fight against the English and were defeated
  • Bhonsle – Treaty of Devgaon, 1803
  • Sindhia – Treaty of Surajianjangaon, 1803
  • Holkar – Treaty of Rajpurghat, 1806

Pindari War (1817-18)

• Pindaris, made up of many castes and classes, were attached to Maratha armies as mercenaries.
• When the Marathas became weak, the Pindaris could not get regular employment.
• They started plundering neighbouring territories, including those of the Company.
• English troops surrounded them in Malwa region and Gwalior to force surrender.
• Pindari leaders like Amir Khan and Karim Khan surrendered while Chitu Khan fled into the jungles.
• They was given jobs as police and offered pensions along with land.

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3rd Anglo-Maratha War (1817-19)

• Bajirao II made a last bid in 1817 by rallying together the Maratha chiefs against the English.
• Peshwa attacked the British Residency at Poona.
• Appa Sahib of Nagpur attacked the residency at Nagpur.
• Peshwa was defeated at Khirki, Bhonsle at Sitabuldi, and Holkar at Mahidpur
  • Peshwa – Treaty of Poona 1817
  • Sindhia – Treaty of Gwalior 1817
  • Holkar – Treaty of Mandasor 1818
• Peshwa surrendered and Maratha confederacy and peshwaship was dissolved.
• Bajirao II became a British retainer at Bithur near Kanpur.
• Pratap Singh, a lineal descendant of Shivaji, was made ruler of a small principality, Satara.

Cause of Marathas Lost

• Poor Leadership
• Defective Nature of Maratha State
  • There was no effort, right from the days of Shivaji, for a well thought out organised communal improvement, spread of education or unification of the people.
  • The rise of the Maratha state was based on the religio-national movement.
• Loose Political Setup
  • Lack of a cooperative spirit among the Maratha chiefs.
• Inferior Military System
  • Marathas were inferior to the English in organisation of the forces, in war weapons, in disciplined action.
• Unstable Economic Policy
  • Maratha leadership failed to evolve a stable economic policy. There were no industries or foreign trade openings.

• Superior English Diplomacy and Espionage
  • The English attacked a ‘divided house’ which started crumbling after a few pushes.

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Conquest of Sindh

Rise of Talpuras Amirs

• Prior to the rule of Talpuras Amirs, Sindh was ruled by the Kallora chiefs.
• In 1758, an English factory was built at Thatta, given by the Kallora prince, Ghulam Shah.
• He excluded other Europeans from trading there.
• In the 1770s, a Baluch tribe called Talpuras, descended from the hills and settled in the plains of Sindh.
• In 1783, Talpuras, under the leadership of Mir Fath (Fatah) Ali Khan, established complete hold over Sindh.
• They conquered Amarkot from the Raja of Jodhpur, Karachi from the chief of Luz, Shaikarpur and Bukkar from the Afghans.

Gradual Ascendancy over Sindh

• Under the influence of Tipu Sultan and local traders Amir in 1800, ordered the British agent to quit Sindh.
• In 1807, alliance of Tilsit with Alexander I of Russia was joined by Napoleon Bonaparte.
• Alliance had a condition of combined invasion of India by the land route.
• British wanted to create a barrier between Russia and British India.
• Lord Minto sent Metcalfe to Lahore, Elphinstone to Kabul and Malcolm to Teheran.
• Sindh was visited by Nicholas Smith who met the Amirs.
• Treaty of eternal friendship was signed.
• Both side agreed to exclude the French from Sindh.
• Treaty was renewed in 1820 with the addition of an article excluding Americans.
• Treaty of 1832 singed between William Bentinck and Amirs.
• Free passage through Sindh would be allowed to the English traders and travellers and the use of Indus for trading purposes.
• No warships would ply, nor any materials for war would be carried.
• No English merchant would settle down in Sindh, and passports would be needed for travellers.
• Company persuaded Ranjit Singh to sign Tripartite Treaty of 1838.
• As per treaty British will mediation in his disputes with the Amirs.
• Sindh Accepts Subsidiary Alliance in 1839.
• 1st Anglo-Afghan War (1839-42), fought on the soil of Sindh.
• Amirs were charged with treasonable activities against the British.
• Lord Ellenborough provoked Amirs and people of Sindh into a war.
• Amirs were made captives and banished from Sindh in 1843.
• Sindh was merged into British Empire.
• Charles Napier was its 1st governor.

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Anglo-Sikh War

Punjab After Ranjit Singh

• In 1843, Daleep Singh, a minor son of Ranjit Singh,was proclaimed Maharaja with Rani Jindan as regent and Hira Singh Dogra as wazir.
• In 1845 Lal Singh won over army to his side and became the wazir.
• Teja Singh was appointed as the commander of the forces.

1st Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46)

• Death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh resulting in a power struggle for domination between court at Lahore and the ever powerful and increasingly local army.
• Suspicions amongst Sikh army arising from English military campaigns to annex of Gwalior and Sindh in 1841 and the campaign in Afghanistan in 1842.
• Increase in the number of English troops being stationed near the border with Lahore kingdom.
• War began in Dec 1845 with 20,000 to 30,000 troops in the British side, while Sikhs had about 50,000 men.
• Treachery of Lal Singh and Teja Singh caused 5 successive defeats to the Sikhs.
• Lahore captured by British forces on Feb 1846 without a fight.
• Sikhs forced to sign a humiliating Treaty of Lahore, 1846.
• Jalandhar Doab (between Beas and Sutlej) was annexed to the Company’s dominions.
• Strength of the Sikh army was reduced.
• Daleep Singh was recognised as the ruler under Rani Jindan as regent and Lal Singh as Wazir.
• Since, the Sikhs were not able to pay the entire war indemnity, Kashmir including Jammu was sold to Gulab Singh.
• Transfer of Kashmir to Gulab Singh was formalised by a separate treaty.
• Sikhs were not satisfied with the Treaty of Lahore over the issue of Kashmir, so they rebelled.
• Dec 1846, Treaty of Bhairowal was signed.
• According to this Rani Jindan was removed as regent and a council of regency for Punjab was set up.
• Council consisted of 8 Sikh sardars presided over by the English Resident, Henry Lawrence.

2nd Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49)

• Mulraj, the governor of Multan, was replaced by a new Sikh governor over the issue of increase in annual revenue.
• Mulraj revolted and murdered two English officers and new governor.
• Sher Singh was sent to suppress the revolt, but he himself joined Mulraj, leading to a mass uprising in Multan.
• Lord Dalhousie, a hardcore expansionist, got a reason to annex Punjab completely.
• Battle of Ramnagar, Company army led by Hugh Gough.
• Battle of Chillianwala, Jan 1849.
• Battle of Gujarat, Feb 1849 (Gujarat, small town banks of Jhelum).
• Sikh army surrendered at Rawalpindi, and their Afghan allies were chased out of India.
• Dalhousie was given thanks of British Parliament and a promotion as Marquess.
• Setting up of a three-member board to govern Punjab, comprising of Lawrence brothers (Henry and John) and Charles Mansel.
• 1853 John Lawrence became 1st chief commissioner.

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Expansion of British through Administrative Policy

Policy of Ring-Fence

• Warren Hastings followed a policy of ring-fence.
• It aimed at creating buffer zones to defend the Company’s frontiers.
• It reflected in his war against the Marathas and Mysore.
• States brought under the ring-fence system were assured of military assistance against external aggression.
• But that state has to pay to maintain military forces.
• Wellesley’s policy of subsidiary alliance was, in fact, an extension of ring-fence system.

Subsidiary Alliance

• Subsidiary Alliance policy was used by Lord Wellesley.
• Under Subsidiary Alliance system, allying Indian state’s ruler has to accept
  1. Keep British force within his territory and pay a subsidy for its maintenance
  2. Posting a British resident in his court
  3. Could not employ any European without approval of British
  4. Could not negotiate with any other Indian ruler without governor general
• In return British would defend the ruler from his enemies.
• Non-interference in the internal matters of the allied state by British.
• During 7 year rule of Wellesley alone, over 100 small and big states of India signed the Subsidiary Alliance treaty.

Evolution & Perfection

• Probably Dupleix, who first gave on hire European troops to Indian rulers to fight their wars.
• 1st Indian state to fall into protection system was Awadh, signed a treaty in 1765.
• 1787, Company decided that subsidiary alliance state should not have foreign relations.
• This was included in the treaty with the Nawab of Carnatic which Cornwallis signed in 1787.

Stages of Application of Subsidiary Alliance

1st stage

• In the process of Subsidiary Alliance, company offered to help a friendly Indian state with its troops to fight any war.

2nd stage

• It consisted of making a common cause with the Indian state.
• Made friendly and taking the field with its own soldiers and those of the state.

3rd stage

• When the Indian ally was asked not for men but for money.
• Company promised that it would recruit, train, and maintain a fixed number of soldiers under British officers for his state.
• All for a fixed sum of money.

4th stage

• Money or the protection fee was fixed, usually at a high level.
• If state failed to pay money in time, it was asked to cede certain parts of its territories to the Company in lieu of payment.

States which Accepted Subsidiary Alliance

• 1st to accept Subsidiary Alliance was Nizam of Hyderabad 1798
• Ruler of Mysore 1799
• Ruler of Tanjore 1799
• Nawab of Awadh 1801
• Peshwa 1801
• Bhonsle Raja of Berar 1803, Sindhia 1804, Rajput states of Jodhpur, Jaipur, Macheri, Bundi and the ruler of Bharatpur 1818
• Holkars were last Maratha confederation to accept the Subsidiary Alliance in 1818.

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Doctrine of Lapse

• Doctrine of Lapse stated that the adopted son could be the heir to his foster father’s private property, but not the state.
• It was for the British power to decide whether to bestow the state on the adopted son or to annex it.
• Doctrine of Lapse was based on Hindu law and Indian customs, but Hindu law seemed to be somewhat inconclusive on this point.
• Ranjit Singh had annexed a few of his feudatory principalities on account of ‘lapse’.
• Kittur state ruled by Queen Chennamma was taken over in 1824 by imposing a ‘doctrine of lapse’.
• Lord Dalhousie was not its originator, but he made it official by documenting it.
• His predecessors had acted on the general principle of avoiding annexation if it could be avoided.
• Dalhousie in turn acted on the general principle of annexing if he could do so legitimately.
• 7 states were annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse Policy
  • Satara 1848
  • Jaitpur (Bundelkhand), Sambhalpur (Orissa) 1849
  • Baghat (south of Sutlej) 1850 – canceled
  • Udaipur (central province) 1852 – canceled
  • Jhansi 1853
  • Nagpur 1854
  • Tore and Arcot 1855
  • Lord Dalhousie annexed Awadh in 1856 on the ground of misrule
  • Court of Directors overruled Doctrine of Lapse to Karauli (Rajputana)

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